Thus, this attenuation constitutes an “adaptive filter” of sensory input to the OB in

which ORNs activated by odorants present at the beginning of exploratory sniffing (i.e., “background” odorants) are selectively suppressed in the representation of subsequently sampled odorants (Verhagen et al., 2007). In contrast, during low-frequency sampling, odorants encountered against a background are represented as the sum of the background and “foreground” response maps (Figure 4B). This filtering can enhance the contrast between odorants having overlapping molecular features (or mixtures with shared components). An equally important function of frequency-dependent attenuation

may be to increase Ku-0059436 purchase the salience of temporally dynamic or spatially localized odorants relative to broadly distributed background odorants. This effect Cyclopamine molecular weight is similar to that seen in active vision, in which repeated scanning of a complex visual scene induces adaptation to scene statistics and increases the salience of novel stimuli appearing against this background (McDermott et al., 2010). Thus, sniffing provides a bottom-up mechanism for the active modulation of odor salience. Finally, odor representations may depend on whether odorants are sampled via inhalation of odorant through the nose—“orthonasal” sampling—or via the oral cavity and through the nasopharynx—“retronasal” sampling (Hummel, 2008). Retronasal odor sampling can occur during odorant exhalation or, as is more typically considered, after the release of odorant vapor from ingested liquids or solids; retronasally sampled odorants are large contributors to flavor perception in humans (Murphy et al., 1977). Evidence from humans polyribosome suggests that odors sampled orthonasally are perceived differently from those

sampled retronasally, with retronasal odors perceived as less intense and originating from the oral cavity rather than externally (Murphy et al., 1977 and Small et al., 2005). Ortho- versus retronasally sampled odors differentially activate brain areas involved in odor and flavor perception, suggesting that the route of odorant sampling can also impact central processing of odor information (Small et al., 2005). The specific role that retronasal olfaction plays in odor and flavor perception, including whether it is under active control during behavior, remains unclear, however. Retronasal odor sampling may also represent an important difference between human and rodent olfaction: in humans, both inhaled and exhaled air pass over the olfactory epithelium, while in rodents and other macrosmatic animals exhaled air largely bypasses the olfactory recess, severely limiting retronasal access of odorants to ORNs (Zhao et al., 2004 and Craven et al., 2010).