retortaeformis single and B. bronchiseptica–T.

retortaeformis co-infection ( Fig. 1D1). No significant differences in cytokine expression were found between fundus and antrum DAPT ic50 from the same infection type ( Fig. 1D1 and D2). In the small intestine, the cytokine response against T. retortaeformis was consistently different between infections in the duodenum ( Fig. 1E1) and to a lesser extent in the ileum ( Fig. 1E2). In general, IL-4 and IL-10 showed significantly higher expression in the dual helminth infection and lower in the triple or single infection. The remaining infections showed intermediate values for both cytokines. IFN-γ was highly expressed in the duodenum, although no significant differences were found across infections ( Fig. 1E1). Within the ileum, only IL-4 differed between infections and it was mainly driven by the high expression in the T. retortaeformis–G. strigosum co-infection ( Fig. 1E2). The average expression of cytokines in the duodenum was consistently higher compared to the ileum but significant values were only observed for IFN-γ and IL-4 in the dual helminth infection (Tukey test: P<0.05 and P<0.001, respectively). The uninfected duodenum from the B. bronchiseptica–G. strigosum co-infection exhibited baseline values ( Fig. 1E1). These findings suggest that bystander effects by a second pathogen are more apparent in some organs and appear to affect the expression of some cytokines more than others. To determine whether the relationship

between cytokines was consistent

among types of infection, pair-wise regressions were performed between IFN-γ, IL-4 and IL-10 www.selleckchem.com/products/rgfp966.html Thiamine-diphosphate kinase gene expression from the same organ and combining the infections together. The uninfected small intestine (from the B. bronchiseptica+G. strigosum co-infection) and stomach (from B. bronchiseptica+T. retortaeformis and single T. retortaeformis infections) were also included in the analysis. Significant positive associations between cytokines were found for the spleen, the small intestine and partially the stomach, but not for the lungs or the mesenteric lymph nodes ( Table 1, Fig. 2). These positive relationships were observed despite differences in the level of expression among infections; indeed, the significant intercepts from the regression analysis suggested that there is variability in local cytokine expression among infection types ( Table 1). The significant association between cytokines in the spleen was mainly influenced by the T. retortaeformis–G. strigosum co-infection as the remaining infections showed close to baseline cytokine expression. The pattern in the small intestine was driven by the strong relationships in the duodenum, although a significant association between IL-10 and IL-4 was also observed in the ileum ( Table 1). A significant positive IL-4–IFN-γ relationship was found in the total stomach as well as the fundus and antrum but was mainly caused by a couple of individuals with strong IFN-γ expression ( Table 1).