Whenever instruments larger than #60 were required, stainless steel Flexofile instruments (Dentsply-Maillefer) were used. Patency of the apical foramen was confirmed with a small file (#15 or #20 NitiFlex) throughout the procedures and after each file size. Preparation was completed by using step-back of 1-mm increments. The irrigant used was 2.5% NaOCl solution. A 27-gauge needle was used to deliver 2 mL of NaOCl after each instrument size. Each canal

was dried by using sterile paper points and then flushed with 5 mL of 5% sodium thiosulfate to inactivate any residual NaOCl. Subsequently, the root canal walls were gently filed, and a postinstrumentation sample (S2) was taken from the canal as outlined above. Smear layer was removed by rinsing the canal with 3 mL of 17% EDTA and then leaving the canal Gefitinib mouse filled with this solution for 3 minutes. After irrigation with 5 mL of 2.5% NaOCl, the canal was dried with

sterile paper points and medicated with either CHG (n = 12) or CHPG (n = 12) paste. The paste was placed in the canals by means of lentulo spiral fillers and Selleckchem MAPK Inhibitor Library packed with a cotton pellet at the level of canal entrance. A radiograph was taken to ensure proper placement of the calcium hydroxide paste in the canal. Access cavities were filled with at least 4-mm thickness of a temporary cement (Coltosol; Coltène/Whaledent Inc, Cuyahoga Falls, OH). Seven days later, the tooth was isolated with a rubber dam, the operative field was cleaned and disinfected, and the NaOCl was neutralized, as outlined earlier. A sterility control sample of the operative field was obtained. The temporary filling was removed, and the calcium hydroxide paste was rinsed out of the canal by using sterile saline solution and the master apical file. The root canal walls were gently filed, and a postmedication sample (S3) was taken as above. Subsequently, the canals were filled with gutta-percha Non-specific serine/threonine protein kinase and sealer by the lateral compaction technique, and the tooth was temporized with glass ionomer cement. Clinical

samples were brought to room temperature, and DNA was extracted by using the QIAamp DNA Mini Kit (Qiagen, Valencia, CA), following the protocol recommended by the manufacturer. DNA from a panel of several oral bacterial species was also prepared to serve as controls (19). Aliquots of extracted DNA were used in 16S rRNA gene-based PCR protocols with universal primers for members of the domains Bacteria (8f: 5′ – AGA GTT TGA TYM TGG C – 3′ and 1492r: 5′ – GYT ACC TTG TTA CGA CTT – 3′) (20) or Archaea (333f: 5′ – TCC AGG CCC TAC GGG – 3′ and 934r: 5′ – GTG CTC CCC CGC CAA TTC CT – 3′) 21 and 22 and in a 18S rRNA gene-based PCR assay with universal primers for fungi (domain Eukarya) (B2f: 5′ – ACT TTC GAT GGT AGG ATA G – 3′ and B4r: 5′ – TGA TCR TCT TCG ATC CCC TA – 3′) (23).