This has been demonstrated by persistent elevation of pro-inflammatory cytokines like IL-6 among infertile women [12] and in tear fluid from post-scarring trachoma populations [13]. One study identified IL-6 secretion via the TLR2 signaling pathway after C. trachomatis infections [14]. This TLR2 pathway has been shown to be associated with fallopian-tube pathology, potentially contributing to the immunopathogenesis associated with C. trachomatis infection [14]. The chemokine monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (CCL2) has also been Akt inhibitor identified in chronic chlamydial infections demonstrating elevated levels in post-scarring

trachoma populations [13]. Due to the high prevalence of worldwide trachoma, the World Health Organization (WHO) established and supports selleck compound the use of the SAFE (surgery, antibiotics, facial cleanliness, and environmental improvements) strategy to reduce disease transmission in endemic areas. Mass antibiotic Regorafenib nmr therapy has been a mainstay in this program resulting in

diminished prevalence of active chlamydial infections [15–17]. However, heightened recurrence rates of infection 6-24 months after termination of antibiotic therapy were evident in multiple studies [18–21]. Additionally, Burnham et al. saw an increase in chlamydia-associated STI Reinfection after a control program with antibiotic treatment was established [22]. The mass administration of antibiotics may lead to the development of antibiotic resistance in chlamydial species as well as other pathogenic bacteria. It is apparent pentoxifylline that research into alternative treatments is warranted, and the use of phototherapy may be an attractive option. Phototherapy utilizing low power lasers or light emitting diodes (LEDs) has been

shown to reduce pain and chronic inflammation, and to promote tissue regeneration via a photochemical mechanisms (reviewed in [23]). Additionally, anti-bacterial effects due to the increased production of reactive oxygen species resulting in membrane instability and DNA damage have been evident with phototherapy [23–27]. Its use with several discrete wavelengths exhibits anti-bacterial activity requiring short treatment times without inducing anti-bacterial resistance subsequent to multiple treatment sessions [28]. In this study, we analyzed the effect of low-level 405 nm and 670 nm LED irradiation on the growth of C. trachomatis and the ensuing secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and CCL2 from C. trachomatis-infected epithelial cells. Results Inhibition of chlamydial growth post – 405 nm irradiation This study assessed the use of 405 nm and 670 nm LEDs as an alternative treatment against chlamydial infections. In Figure 1A, HeLa cells were infected with C. trachomatis at a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 5. Irradiation treatment with violet 405 nm LEDs demonstrated chlamydial growth inhibition at energy densities as low as 5 J/cm2 (Figure 1B, P < 0.005).