90 ± 0.15 m ratios for M. scrofulaceum and the remaining types, respectively). Discussion This study provided new insights into the ecology of M. bovis and environmental mycobacteria in complex host and pathogen communities, showing that mycobacteria are structured by host species and sampling site, even at very small spatial scales. The study also

showed that host species differences in spatial patterns may greatly depend on behavioral and/or specific host-pathogen-environment interactions, for which our molecular and ecological approach allowed obtaining valuable information on the involved risk factors. Mycobacterial species and typing patterns Contrary to most previous studies in wildlife, Ferrostatin-1 in vivo where single TPs tend to dominate in each geographical region [e.g. [19, 20, 45]] we detected a high richness of both MOTT and M. bovis TPs in DNP. Whereas single TPs are indicative of single introduction events of M. bovis, in our case the high identified TP richness is probably a consequence of (i) historical cattle breeding and consequent exchanges

with breeders from outside the park, (ii) variable conditions provided by high environmental diversity, and (iii) the diversity and abundance of suitable wildlife hosts. Multiple infection of a wildlife host with several M. bovis TPs had recently been found in one wild boar from this study area [32]. This observation is rare in wildlife M. bovis hosts [46]. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study reporting co-infection of red deer and fallow deer with several M. bovis TPs. Moreover, the efficiency of isolating mycobacteria could have been improved with the inclusion of liquid media, suggesting that we detected Selleckchem BAY 11-7082 only part of the true co-infections. The relevance of these findings is that they demonstrate that M. bovis infected wildlife hosts may become infected more than

once under natural conditions, at least in areas of high infection pressure such as DNP. These results also suggest that cross-protection between different M. bovis strains Sclareol is limited, further underlining the importance of genetic factors rather than immune responses in controlling mycobacterial infections in wildlife [11, 47, 48]. Additionally, the infection exclusion reported for closely related genotypes of other intracellular bacteria of the genus Anaplasma [49] did not appear to occur for M. bovis TPs. Co-existence of members of the M. tuberculosis complex and MOTT, such as M. intracellulare, had already been reported in human patients [50]. As previously CAL-101 cost discussed, the fact that we found several M. bovis – MOTT co-infections suggests that infection by one organism does not impede infection by the other in these wildlife host species. However, in all three wildlife hosts, isolation of one group of mycobacteria occurred more frequently in individuals not infected by the other group, suggesting that either some competition between mycobacteria or some laboratory bias towards the first identifiable growth may exist.