Adoptive transfer of TCR transgenic T cells specific for LCMV, followed by infection with the chronic strain of the virus, led to clonal deletion of the transferred

cells. However, prior to deletion, the transferred cells were found to lose cytotoxic activity. The chronic viral infection ‘exhausted’ the T-cell adaptive immune response by both clonal deletion and anergy of effector function [4]. The advent of tetramer technology made possible the further refinement of the definition of this process. Detection of Ag-specific cells by tetramers demonstrated that Ivacaftor order not all clones are deleted in response to chronic LCMV. Thus, the term exhaustion was refined to describe the remaining Ag-specific population with diminished effector function, as measured by CTL activity and the secretion GDC-0941 mw of IFN-γ [5, 6]. The significance of this exhausted population in human chronic viral infections was subsequently confirmed by the finding that the inhibitory receptor PD-1 marked exhausted cells with diminished proliferative capacity in HIV infection [7]. In order to investigate the transcriptional control of the exhausted phenotype, investigators carried out differential gene expression analysis by microarray of exhausted

versus other Ag-specific populations induced by LCMV. From this analysis, it was discovered that the transcriptional repressor, Blimp-1, was significantly upregulated in the exhausted population [8]. The role of Blimp-1 was first defined in the B lymphocyte, where it plays a vital role in terminal differentiation [9]. The finding that Blimp-1 was expressed in CD8+ T cells [10, 11] prompted investigators to search for a similar role for Blimp-1 within CD8+ T cells. Two independent groups demonstrated that, in response to viral challenge, responding Blimp-1-deficient CD8+ T cells had lower percentages of cells that were terminally differentiated [12, 13]. There has been less information regarding the role of Blimp-1 in murine CD4+ T lymphocytes, though similar attenuation of

in vivo proliferative responses has been observed [14]. In order to determine the role that senescence-associated Blimp-1 C59 order has in viral-induced T-cell exhaustion, mice with a T-cell deficiency of Blimp-1 were challenged with chronic LCMV. Blimp-1-deficient cells were found to express, at a lower number and at a lower level, a number of the exhaustion-defining inhibitory receptors, including PD-1 [15]. Alongside its ability to control inhibitory receptor expression in chronic viral infections, Blimp-1 has effects on the other defining characteristic of exhausted T lymphocytes including cytokine production, with Blimp-1 expression being shown to prevent T-cell secretion of IL-2 and IFN-γ in CD4+ T cells [14]. The inability of HIV-exhausted T cells to secrete IL-2 and IFN-γ has been documented and is another feature of the difference between those with CHI and LTNPs [16, 17].