Disruption of the the serine/threonine kinase (PKB/AKT) has been implicated in several human cancers, and the enzyme seems to play an important role in their outcome.52 In 1995, it was demonstrated that AKT/PKB was a direct effector of phosphatidylinositol-3-OH kinase (PI-3 kinase).53,54 Later in the same year, Cross et al55 showed that

AKT/PKB phosphorylates glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK3), being a key factor in that signaling Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical MEK162 mw cascade, linking PI-3K to to basic metabolic functions, such as protein and lipid synthesis, carbohydrate metabolism, and transcription.52 AKT/PKB became interesting for psychiatry when it was found that both isoforms of GSK-3 (α and β) are inhibited by lithium (Li+).56,57 This inhibition seems Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical to be due to competition for magnesium (Mg2+) binding at a site distinct from the ATP binding site58,59 and occurs at expected therapeutic concentrations of the drug used as a mood stabilizer. The ncuroprotectant effect, of Li+ seems to be due to inhibition of GSK-3β that results in accumulation of the antiapoptotic

factor β-catenin,60 which is also affected by other mood stabilizers such as lamotrigine and valproate.61 The first, report of a possible involvement, of GSK-3 in schizophrenia was by Yang et al,62 where they showed that both cellular activities and protein levels of kinase FA/GSK-3α in the lymphocytes of schizophrenic patients were greatly impaired Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical compared with normal controls. More Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical recently, low immunoreactivity and activity of GSK-3β was demonstrated in the postmortem frontal http://www.selleckchem.com/products/AG-014699.html cortex of schizophrenic patients,63-65 but at least one negative study was also reported for a different brain collection,66 which made the authors stress the need to be cautious with interepretation of data

from postmortem samples. In an elegant study, Hmamian et al67 have shown that levels of AKT1, but not. of AKT2 or AKT3, was reduced in lymphocytes and in frontal cortex of schizophrenic patients compared with controls. In contrast, the expression levels of GSK-3P was not altered in patient’s lymphocytes and was slightly Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical decreased in brain tissue. However, when the AKTl -dependent phosphorylation levels of GSK-3β at serine-9 was significantly lower in lymphocytes and frontal cortex Carfilzomib of schizophrenic patients. In addition, they have shown that, treatment of mice with haloperidol induced an increase in phosphorylation of GSK-3β Ser-9. Evidence of the involvement of the AKT/GSK-3β pathway with dopaminc-dcpcndcnt behaviors and signaling was recently shown.68 The authors demonstrated that increased dopaminergic neurotransmission in mice striatum, resulted in inactivation of AKT and concomitant, activation of GSK-3a and GSK-3P, which was affected by activation of the cAMP pathway, as shown by the lack of phosphorylation changes in DARRP-32 Thr-34. However, these effects were effectively reversed either by inhibition of dopamine synthesis, dopamine D2 receptor (D2) blockade, or administration of lithium salts.