In addition, some necrotic, PI positive, only (4.0%), cells were also observed. Furthermore, cells treated with a clinically relevant concentration (50 nM) of vincristine, a chemotherapeutic agent known to induce apoptosis in several tumor types Vistusertib purchase [24], induced similar levels of necrosis (3.6%), but less than half as much apoptosis (1.2% and 7.5% early and late stages of apoptosis, respectively) as EA in A498 cells. Higher concentrations of vincristine were not tested, thus, it is possible that 100 nM vincristine may have induced similar levels of apoptosis to EA. Overall, our results indicated that EA induced cell death in A498 cells, the majority

of which, occurred after 24 h of treatment, and at least part of this cell death was due to apoptosis. Figure 1 Induction of cell death by EA in A498 RCC cells. A498 cells were cells were treated with EA at 50 and 100 nM. Control cells received 0.1% DMSO (vehicle). All conditions were performed in triplicate. Cells were then incubated with additions for 24 or 48 h before learn more measuring viability using the PrestoBlue® assay (A).

A498 cells were treated with 100 nM EA or vehicle for 24 and 45 h durations. Apoptosis was determined by measuring cytoplasmic histone-associated-DNA-fragments using the Cell Death Detection ELISAPLUS assay kit (B). A498 cells were Src inhibitor treated with 100 nM EA or with 0.1% DMSO (control) for 24 and 46 h. Cells were then trypsinized, washed with ice cold PBS, and stained with Alexa Fluor® 488 annexin V and PI and analyzed by flow cytometry (C). Analysis of caspase activity

Having established that EA induced apoptosis in A498 cells, the question remained as to whether caspases were involved in EA-induced apoptosis and if so which ones were involved. To determine if EA induced caspase activation in general, active caspases were measured in Tideglusib A498 cells, treated as indicated in Figure 2A, by using the FLICA reagent (Fluorochrome Inhibitor of Caspases) which binds covalently to only active caspases and allows active caspase detection by fluorescence. The etoposide, VP16, a chemotherapeutic agent known to induce apoptosis in multiple tumor types and known to activate caspases [25], was used as a positive control in these experiments. Because the effective dose of VP16 is in the micromolar range and since RCC cells are not nearly as sensitive to VP16 and other standard chemotherapeutic agents when compared to EA, higher concentrations of VP16 were used in these experiments over EA. While active caspases were detected in cells treated with 200 μM VP16, active caspases were not detected in cells treated with 100 nM EA (Figure 2A), a concentration of EA reducing cell viability by 70-80%. To confirm that EA did not induce caspase activation, levels of active caspase-3, an executioner caspase, were also determined. Levels of active caspase-3 were examined by Western Blot analysis in A498 cells treated with 200 nM EA or 0.1% DMSO for 48 h.