The fluid is transparent and has the Dinaciclib mouse same refraction index as the model wall. This is important for the laser measurements. The laser light will not be absorbed and the laser beam is not deflected. Measurements were done with 3D-LDA fiber optic system (DANTEC) in a physiological healthy carotid artery model with a bifurcation angel of 37° between the internal and external carotid artery. In addition to this model, we studied models with a bifurcation angle of 29° and 41° and also with a 90% stenosis in the internal carotid artery, and with a 80% stenosis in the internal and external carotid artery (Fig. S1 – online supplementary

file). The flow rate ratio was mostly 70:30 in the internal to-external carotid artery, but also other flow rate ratios were tested. In earlier studies we used 90°, 60° and 45° bifurcations to study the influence of the different flow parameters separately • pulsatile, unsteady flow; We found that the endothelial cell layer was elongated in the flow direction;

however in the flow separation area the endothelial cells have a rounded form and are not packed closely together, so small leaks can be found. That means, in this area, material transport from inside into the wall or from outside into the blood can easily occur. At the stagnation point, the endothelial cells are packed closely together and are also around Selleckchem CDK inhibitor the apex of the inner wall of the flow divider (Fig. 2). The flow was visualized using dyes for steady flow, and with a photoelasticity apparatus and a birefringent solution to visualize the unsteady pulsatile flow. Fig. S2 (left) (online supplementary file) demonstrates the influence of the flow rate ratio. The flow separation zone starts at a flow of 30% into the branch and increases with higher flow rate in to the branch. On the right, a short demonstration is shown under pulsatile conditions for a flow rate ratio of 0.3. It is well known that vessel blockage is caused by the growth of plaque. First, a small atherosclerotic Pyruvate dehydrogenase plaque can be found

at a bifurcation which creates damage to the intima (ulceration). Fibrin platelet aggregation can be created leading to additional thrombus formation. Finally particles are released from the plaque or parts of the thrombus which can lead to a total blockage of the vessel (thrombus, thrombus emboli). This can be clearly observed with our flow visualization techniques. Fig. 3 shows flow, with a dye, hitting the apex of the carotid bifurcation model. The dye separates into two parts, flowing into the internal and external carotid artery. Because the velocity at the inner side of the internal carotid artery is high, an area with a lower pressure is created on the opposite side; therefore the blue dye spreads out.