The increase was approximately exponential and in the range of 26–36 °C the rate was elevated at a factor of 3.7 (Q10)! This corresponds with a report of Núñez (1966) that cooling of the mouthparts prolonged the drinking time of sucrose foraging bees. Regulation

of Tth at a high level even at low Ta allows the bees to keep Thd at a level high enough to guarantee a high suction speed. The shortened duration of stay ( Fig. 9) in turn compensates at least in part for the higher energetic costs of a high Tth. In addition, it has to be kept in mind that cooling down would require an additional period of pre-flight warm-up (at ∼7.5 °C/min; Heinrich, 1979b and Stabentheiner et al., 2002) and this way would prolong the duration of stay. Fig. 10A shows that the bees reduced MDV3100 order crop loading as ambient temperature decreased. This resembles investigations on the amount of crop Everolimus research buy loading of sucrose foraging honeybees (Núñez, 1966, Pflumm, 1977, Marchl, 1986 and Afik and Shafir, 2007). The question arises of whether this is an energetic or a functional optimization. Moffatt (2000) reported that a reduction of crop load is not an energetic optimization strategy as important as supposed by Schmidt-Hempel (1985). A smaller crop load surely reduces the drinking time, and this way the energetic costs per stay at the water barrel. This, however, means additional, costly foraging trips for the same amount of water. Therefore we suggest

energetic optimization not to be the main purpose of the decreased crop load (compare Varjú and Núñez, 1991). Rather, optimization of the flight performance seems to be more important. Heinrich (1979b) and Woods et al. (2005) reported Tth in flight to decrease with Ta. In parallel, wingbeat frequency decreased. Coelho (1991a) observed a decline of flight force production with decreasing thorax temperature at a Tth

below 39 °C. At low to medium Ta our water foragers displayed mean Tths of 36–37 °C at landing after flight ( Fig. 5), which means that the unloaded water foragers seemed to fly with a suboptimal Tth concerning 3-mercaptopyruvate sulfurtransferase optimization of buoyancy ( Coelho, 1991a). At the returning flight a high Tth is of higher importance because the bees are heavily loaded. Frisch and Lindauer (1955) observed that unloaded bees were able to increase flight speed with increasing foraging motivation (higher sucrose content of the gathered food) considerably on their flight to a food source. Loaded foragers lacked this regulatory ability completely at the returning flight. Therefore, we suggest that water foraging bees reduce crop load with decreasing Ta because otherwise they would have troubles to remain airborne. In addition, they reduce landing weight at about the same rate as crop loading ( Fig. 10A). At present we do not know how this is accomplished, by reduction of provisioning or by increased egestion of the rectal bladder or the midgut.