Elk (Cervus canadensis) are native to the park. Predation by wolves historically limited the density of elk and kept the animals moving, but wolves (Canis lupus) were

hunted to extinction in Colorado by about 1940 ( Armstrong, 1972). Elk were hunted to extinction in the vicinity of what later became Rocky Mountain National Park by 1900, but 49 elk were transplanted from the Yellowstone herd in Wyoming during 1913–14 ( Hess, 1993). The elk population reached 350 by 1933, when the population was judged to have met or exceeded the carrying capacity of the park’s lower elevation valleys that provide elk winter range ( Hess, 1993). Although elk hunting is permitted in the surrounding national forests, hunting is not permitted within the national park and elk have learned to remain within the park boundaries. Elk numbers increased

Akt inhibitor dramatically during the period 1933–1943, decreased in response to controlled shooting during 1944–1961, and subsequently rose rapidly to 3500 by 1997 ( Hess, 1993 and Mitchell et al., 1999). Like many grazing Panobinostat chemical structure animals, elk prefer to remain in riparian zones, and matched photos indicate substantial declines in riparian willow and aspen during periods when elk populations increased. Although other factors may have contributed to the recent decline in beaver numbers, increased riparian grazing by elk likely influences beaver food supply and population. Beaver reintroduction in connection with riparian restoration requires, first, that beaver have an adequate supply of woody riparian vegetation for food and for building dams. About 200 aspen trees are needed by isothipendyl each beaver each year (DeByle, 1985). Second, reintroduction requires that the region includes sufficient suitable habitat to permit dispersal and genetic exchange between colonies of beavers on a river and between rivers. Beaver colony size can vary widely, but averages 5–6 animals. Each colony has a minimum territory of 1 km along a stream (Olson and Hubert, 1994). Third,

successful reintroduction requires that human communities sharing the landscape accept the presence of beaver. Although the latter point might not seem as important in a national park, beaver continue to be removed in many regions because of perceived negative consequences of their presence, including water impoundments and overbank flooding, felling of riparian trees, and pulses of coarse wood to downstream river segments if beaver dams fail during peak flows. Options for riparian restoration in Rocky Mountain National Park include gradual and more abrupt measures. Gradual measures include grazing exclosures that include some lag time for woody riparian vegetation to regrow, self-reintroduction of beaver from populations outside the park boundaries, and measures to limit elk populations to 600–800 animals within the park.

4–5). Other terms to denote humans as an agent of global change were proposed in the early 20th century. From the 1920s to 1940s, for example, some European scientists referred to the Earth as entering an anthropogenic era known as the “noösphere” ( Teilhard de Chardin, 1966 and Vernadsky,

this website 1945), signaling a growing human domination of the global biosphere (see Crutzen, 2002a and Zalasiewicz et al., 2008, p. 2228). Stoppani, Teilhard de Chardin, and Vernadsky defined no starting date for such human domination and their anthropozoic and noösphere labels were not widely adopted. Nonetheless, they were among the first to explicitly recognize a widespread human domination of Earth’s systems. More recently, the concept of an Anthropocene found traction when scientists, the media, and the public grappled with the growing recognition that anthropogenic influences are now on scale with some of the major geologic

events of the past (Zalasiewicz et al., 2008, p. 2228). Increased concentrations of atmospheric greenhouse gases and the discovery of the ozone hole over Antarctica, for example, PCI 32765 led to increased recognition that human activity could adversely affect the functioning of Earth’s systems, including atmospheric processes long thought to be wholly natural phenomena (Steffen et al., 2011, pp. 842–843). Journalist Andrew Revkin (1992) referenced the Anthrocene in his book on global climate change and atmospheric warming and Vitousek et al.’s (1997)Science paper summarized human domination of earth’s ecosystems. It was not until Crutzen and Stoermer (2000; also see Crutzen, 2002a and Crutzen,

2002b) explicitly proposed that the Anthropocene began with increased atmospheric carbon levels caused by the industrial revolution in the late 18th century (including invention of the steam Dichloromethane dehalogenase engine in AD 1784), that the concept began to gain momentum among scientists and the public. Geological epochs are defined using a number of observations ranging from sediment layers, ice cores, and the appearance or disappearance of distinctive forms of life. To justify the creation of an Anthropocene epoch as a formal unit of geologic time, scientists must demonstrate that the earth has undergone significant enough changes due to human actions to distinguish it from the Holocene, Pleistocene, or other geological epochs. As justification for the Anthropocene concept, Crutzen (2002a) pointed to growing concentrations of carbon dioxide and methane in polar ice, rapid human population growth, and significant modification of the world’s atmosphere, oceans, fresh water, forests, soils, flora, fauna, and more, all the result of human action (see also Crutzen and Steffen, 2003 and Steffen et al., 2011). The Anthropocene concept has been increasingly embraced by scholars and the public, but with no consensus as to when it began.

One might wonder, for example, whether participants with superior response inhibition performed better during retrieval practice and strengthened Rp+ items to a greater extent than individuals with inferior response inhibition. Although faster SSRTs did predict modestly better performance during retrieval practice (r = −.13, p = .34), as well as marginally ABT-888 nmr greater benefits from retrieval practice on the final test (r = −.23, p = .08), the correlation between retrieval-induced forgetting and SSRT remained significant even when controlling for variance in these benefits.

Indeed, the partial correlation observed between SSRT and RIF-Z controlling for both practice performance and practice benefits (r = −.29, p = .03) was quite similar to the non-partial correlation observed (r = −.31). Furthermore, for completeness, we repeated the regression analysis while controlling for practice performance and practice benefits, and the same pattern of results was observed.

Recall performance generally declines as a function of serial position in a test sequence. This output interference Protein Tyrosine Kinase inhibitor effect is another manifestation of retrieval-induced forgetting (Anderson et al., 1994). As such, we can also examine the relationship between SSRT and this effect of forgetting. In particular, in the category-plus-stem final test condition, we tested participants on the Rp− items before testing the Rp+ items to ensure that any impairment observed for Rp− items did not arise from the prior output of Rp+ items. Correspondingly, we tested half of

the Nrp items in the first half of the test, to use as a baseline for Rp− items, and the other half of the Nrp items in the second test half, to use as a baseline for Rp+ items. This arrangement provides Glycogen branching enzyme a controlled manipulation of output position for Nrp items that allows us to estimate retrieval-induced forgetting at test. Specifically, as a result of testing Nrp− items first, the retrieval process engaged on those test trials should cause the retrieval-induced forgetting of the as-of-yet to-be-recalled Nrp+ items. Indeed, as would be predicted, Nrp+ items were recalled significantly less well than were Nrp− items, t(59) = 5.43, p < .001, d = −.70, thus demonstrating that Nrp+ items suffered retrieval-induced forgetting as the result of the earlier testing of Nrp− items. Using these data, an additional retrieval-induced forgetting score was calculated for each participant by subtracting Nrp+ recall from Nrp− recall, and then z-normalizing the scores within each counterbalancing condition. Importantly, individual differences in SSRT correlated significantly with this independent measure of retrieval-induced forgetting, with faster SSRTs (better inhibitory control) predicting larger test-based retrieval-induced forgetting effects, r = −.44, p < .001.

, 2008). In South Asia, more than 80% of water and sediment discharges from the Indus River have been diverted by large reservoirs and flow diversion (Giosan et al., 2006). In the Red River basin, the HoaBinh

dam constructed in 1989 is estimated to be responsible for the 50% decline in annual sediment delivery to the delta (Dang et al., 2010). During the four years (2003–2006) after Three Gorges Dam impoundment, ∼60% of sediment entering the Three Gorges Reservoir was trapped. The Manwan Reservoir in the upper reaches trapped substantial amount Olaparib of Mekong’s sediment since most of its sediment derives from its upper reaches. The sediment load at Gajiu station, located 2 km downstream from the reservoir, is only one-third of the pre-dam level (Wang et al., 2011). In comparison with other world’s large dams, the Xiaolangdi dam not only regulates river flow, but also manages the river’s sediment. The WSM through Xiaolangdi Venetoclax chemical structure dam has temporally mitigated the infilling

of sediment in reservoirs and scoured the riverbed. New problems, however, has arisen that the Xiaolangdi reservoir is losing its impoundment capacity at high rate and the riverbed scouring in the lower reaches has weakened since 2006. The managed WSM therefore may not be a long-term solution for sediment-laden rivers that are troubled by sediment-associated problems. The discharge regime of the Huanghe has deviated greatly from its natural condition due to the multiple dam effects. The dam-triggered changes in Huanghe water and sediment delivery to the sea have caused a series of environmental problems. These problems include a shrinking delta plain due to sediment-starvation, altered ecological environments 6-phosphogluconolactonase and nutrient concentrations in coastal waters, and a transition in plume processes at the river mouth (Chu et al., 2006, Wang et al., 2010 and Yu et al., 2013). The Huanghe delta plain has been shrinking, in response to the curtailed sediment supply (Chu et al., 2006). Many deltas in the world are also shrinking due to dam-triggered sediment reduction

(Chu et al., 2006 and Nageswara Rao et al., 2012). The drowning of the Mississippi delta is ascribed primarily to insufficient sediment supply (Blum and Roberts, 2009), which is largely due to construction of dams in the Mississippi Basin. And the current sediment flux is incapable to sustain the delta plain, even if the diversion plan of the Mississippi River could be performed (Kim et al., 2009 and Allison and Meselhe, 2010). Dams on the Colorado and Nile River, together with extensive downstream irrigation systems, have resulted in almost total elimination of riverine sediment delivery to the coastal regions. As a result, the Colorado and Nile deltas are actively receding due to sediment deficit (Stanley, 1996 and Carriquiry et al., 2001). In the Yangtze basin, the construction of the Three Gorges Dam has been linked to erosion of the Yangtze’s subaqueous delta.

Some studies on the western Alps, for example, show that repeated prescribed burning with a short fire return

interval may have negative effects on fauna ( Lemonnier-Darcemont, 2003 and Lyet et al., 2009), and favour alien vegetation encroachment in the short-term ( Lonati et al., 2009). Fire has been a driver of landscape evolution and a mirror of human activities in the Alpine region. This review paper is intended to assist in creating and shaping the future through understanding fire history of the Alps and its fire traditions, as well as its specificities. Due to vulnerability of high mountain environments, the Alpine vegetation can be used as an indicator for global change and climate warming in particular (Pauli et al., 2003). For example, the Bcl-xL protein advent of a new generation of large wildfires at the Alpine belt could mirror a more general trend towards increasing global warming. The climate warming recorded in the Alpine region from 1890 to 2000 results in double the one assessed at global level (Böhm et al., 2001); the environmental impact brought by a further increase of air temperature might lead to very serious consequences, e.g., affecting the water cycle, the occurrence of avalanches, floods and landslides, the ecological heritage, Wnt inhibitor the vertical shift of the tree line (Grace et al., 2002), and worsening fire

severity. In this key, the role of the Alps in monitoring climate change evolution is particularly valuable in investigating potential human-induced, and human-affecting, developments, so strictly associated to the Anthropocene. Current global processes, chiefly climate and land use find more changes, suggest that a complete removal of such

a disturbance from the Alpine area is neither feasible nor advisable. Consequently, we are likely to be forced again to live with fire and to apply traditional knowledge to the principles of fire – and land – management, namely creating resilient landscapes, adapted communities and adequate fire management policies (Dellasala et al., 2004). The unevenness of human population density in the Alpine region is a key issue in defining ad hoc management strategies. On the one hand, land abandonment of marginal areas, alongside climate anomalies, is leading to a new generation of unmanageable large fires (third fire generation sensu Castellnou and Miralles, 2009), where lack of accessibility and fuels build-up are the main constraints, with a greater effect than the often blamed climate change. This will pose a challenge in the future, for instance when shrinking government budgets might result in less capacity of fire services. Furthermore, unbalanced fire regimes such as fire exclusion or very frequent surreptitious use of fire could determine a loss of both species richness and landscape diversity, as it is happening with alpine heathlands ( Lonati et al., 2009 and Borghesio, 2014). Using planned fire for land management and fire prevention ( Fernandes et al.

, 2010). Together, these studies raise the possibility that Bhlhb4 and Bhlhb5 are involved

in late aspects of neuronal differentiation, such as neural circuit assembly, that may be essential for neuronal survival. However, why certain neurons die in the absence of these transcriptional click here repressors is unknown, and this gap in knowledge stems in part from a lack of mechanistic understanding of how these transcription factors function in function in neural circuit formation. A possible clue to this puzzle comes from studies of Bhlhb5 in the dorsal telencephalon. In mice lacking Bhlhb5, neurons of the dorsal telencephalon survive and send out axons, but these projections fail to reach their targets. For instance, corticospinal motor neurons terminate prematurely along the pyramidal tract in the ventral hindbrain and none extend into the spinal cord ( Joshi et al., 2008).

Moreover, as we report here, Bhlhb5 mutants also show a complete absence of the three fiber tracts that connect the cerebral hemispheres, suggesting that axonal mistargeting in the absence of Bhlhb5 is a widespread phenomenon. Since mice lacking Bhlhb5 show axon targeting defects, we reasoned that one of the roles of Bhlhb5 in the dorsal telencephalon may be to regulate neuronal connectivity, Adriamycin ic50 perhaps by repressing specific genes until they are needed, thereby ensuring that genes are expressed at the right time and place for correct neural circuit assembly. To investigate this possibility, we identified the targets of the Bhlhb5 transcriptional repressor, hoping to elucidate how this transcription factor functions at a mechanistic level. Here, we show that Bhlhb5 functions by binding to specific DNA sequence elements and then recruiting the PR/SET domain-containing protein, Pr-domain 8 (Prdm8) to mediate the repression of target genes that must be repressed for neural circuits to form Protein kinase N1 correctly. Our observations suggest that Bhlhb5 and Prdm8 are obligate partners for key aspects of neuronal development and, consistent with this idea, we find that mice lacking either Bhlhb5 or Prdm8 have strikingly similar cellular

and behavioral abnormalities. We use genetic rescue experiments to demonstrate that one important target of the Prdm8/Bhlhb5 repressor complex is Cadherin-11 (Cdh11), a cell-cell adhesion molecule involved in neural circuit assembly. Taken together these experiments have revealed how a bHLH transcription factor associates with a PR/SET-domain repressor protein to regulate genes involved in the proper formation of neural circuits. To gain insight into how Bhlhb5 functions to regulate axon targeting, we sought to determine possible Bhlhb5 target genes by identifying genes that are misexpressed in Bhlhb5 mutant mice during the early development of the dorsal telencephalon (E13.5, E15.5, and E17.5). By expression profiling, we found a total of eight transcripts that were significantly misregulated (FDR < 0.05) when Bhlhb5 is disrupted.

Within approximately 20 min, the resting membrane potential of most neurons returned to their initial values (81%, 17/21). Near the site of high-intensity laser exposure, a gap of ∼5 μm became visible, and distal parts of the axon showed typical beading and degeneration (Figures 4A and S2). Axotomy proximal

to the node (P) was made either in the internode (P, 90–140 μm, n = 5, Figure 4A, right) or within the AIS (15–50 μm, C646 manufacturer n = 7). To isolate the impact of axotomizing the first branchpoint from nonspecific changes (asymmetric current flow at the sealed end, heat-related swelling, phototoxicity, etc.), a control group was included in which the axon was cut distal from the identified first node (D, 120–160 μm, n = 5, Figure 4A, selleck chemicals llc middle). Figures 4A and 4B show an example in which the same axon was axotomized at two different locations with an interval of

25 min. The intrinsically burst firing neuron (236 Hz in control) continued firing at high frequency (240 Hz) when axotomized distal to the branchpoint, but switched to RS mode after a second cut proximal to the branchpoint (9.6 Hz). Data from multiple recordings showed that axotomy of the first branchpoint in IB neurons (230 ± 3 Hz) led to a RS mode (10.2 ± 0.4 Hz, n = 6; unpaired t test p < 0.001; Figure 4C). In contrast, in RS cells the firing rates at steady current injections remained similar to control (control, 7.7 Hz versus cut, 5.6 Hz, paired t test p > 0.09, Figure 5C). Axotomy proximal to the branchpoint did not affect the input resistance at resting potential (1.9 ± 1.0 MΩ increase, paired t test p > 007, n = 12, Figure S2). Similar to axons cut in the slice preparation, axotomy proximal to the first node significantly increased the AP threshold during steady current injections (+6.8 ± 1.1 mV, p < 0.01, Figure 4D) and reduced the ADP amplitude (−3.8 ± 0.6 mV, n = 5, p < 0.05,

Figure 4E). However, single APs were not affected when the axotomy was made distal of the first node; the AP amplitude (+0.3 ± 1.7 mV change), ADP (−0.5 ± 0.5 mV change), and voltage threshold (+1.6 ± 0.5 mV change) remained similar to control values (for all, paired t test p > Monoiodotyrosine 0.3, n = 5). The only specific impact of cutting within the AIS (on average 35 ± 5.4 μm, n = 7) was a significantly larger reduction in the ADP (−12.0 ± 2.7 mV, compared to internodal axotomy p < 0.05, n = 7, Figure 4E). Interestingly, large negative ADP amplitudes observed after laser axotomy in the AIS were quantitatively similar to the ADP amplitudes associated with axons that were cut in the AIS during the slice-cutting procedure (acute axotomy: −12.0 mV for a 35 μm axon versus slice cut: −10.5 mV for a 32 μm axon), suggesting that the functional consequences of acute transections (30 min) are comparable to the lasting impact by slice cutting (2–8 hr).

Although some of the mechanisms of these two forms of learning may overlap (e.g., Law and Gold, 2008), the observed differences suggest that other mechanisms may be unique due to differing functional requirements. A methodological difference between our study and that of Gu et al. (2011) is that we used anesthetized animals while Gu and colleagues used awake animals. We think it is highly unlikely that anesthesia could account for the differences between our results for two reasons. First, while noise correlations can, in principle, be influenced by fluctuations in the depth of anesthesia, they can also be influenced by internal factors in awake animals, such as

fluctuations in alertness, SCH 900776 cell line attention, or motivation. Consistently, differences in noise correlation measurements between studies may be more likely to result from factors

such as differences in the mean firing rate or the size of the temporal analysis window, than by differences in anesthetic (Cohen and Kohn, 2011), although more data are necessary. Second, and most important, even if anesthesia did influence the correlations we measured, this influence would apply Kinase Inhibitor Library equally to all three motif classes because our presentation of motifs during electrophysiology was fully randomized and all of our comparisons are within pairs (or populations) of neurons. In addition, we note that song-evoked responses in the starling forebrain are qualitatively quite similar between anesthetized and unanesthetized states, although some quantitative differences exist (Knudsen and Gentner, 2013; Meliza et al., 2010).

The most parsimonious explanation for our results, however, is that learning induces long-lasting changes Chlormezanone to the neural circuitry that remain after training has concluded, even under anesthesia. The commonly observed positive relationship between signal and noise correlations is often accounted for by shared inputs that provide both signal and noise. In primary visual cortex, neurons that share receptive field properties are more likely to share thalamocortical afferent inputs (Alonso et al., 2001; Michalski et al., 1983). But a negative relationship would require a decorrelation of similarly tuned neurons and an increase in the correlation of dissimilarly tuned neurons. Simple feedforward inhibition circuits could, in theory, support both requirements. Recent modeling work has demonstrated that correlated noise in excitatory and inhibitory input can cancel each other, leading to decorrelated network states (Middleton et al., 2012; Renart et al., 2010). Complementary circuitry in which only excitatory inputs are correlated could preserve correlated noise in dissimilarly tuned neurons (Figure S4).

COCCIMORPH is a computational approach for parasite identification in case of Eimeria Sunitinib chemical structure spp. from the chicken. Digital images of 50 individual unidentified sporulated oocysts of Eimeria spp. were uploaded on to the software. The software then analysed the oocyst on the basis of different features namely, curvature characterisation, size, symmetry and internal structure characterisation for the identification of eimerian species. Identification of Eimeria spp. using COCCIMORPH software revealed the presence of E. acervulina, E. maxima, E. mitis, E. praecox, E. necatrix and E. tenella, in 96.7%, 36.7%, 90.0%, 3.3%, 23.3% and 16.7% of

farms, respectively ( Fig. 1, Supplementary Table 2). E. brunetti was not recorded in any of the farms screened using COCCIMORPH. Nested PCR using ITS-1 primer was standardised with pure DNA of all seven species of Eimeria. Specific PCR amplicons of E. acervulina (321 bp), E. brunetti (311 bp), E. maxima US strain

(145 bp), E. maxima Australian strain (145 bp), E. mitis1 (328 bp), E. mitis5 (193 bp), E. necatrix (383 bp), E. praecox (116 bp) and E. tenella (278 bp) were visualised (data not shown). In field samples, ITS-1 based nested PCR identified E. acervulina, E. brunetti, E. maxima, E. mitis, E. praecox, E. necatrix and E. tenella in 93.3%, 10.0%, 86.7%, 96.7%, 66.7%, 80.0% and 100% farms, respectively ( Fig. 1, Supplementary Table 2). In 16 farms, both the Australian- and US-type strains of E. maxima were identified, while in ten farms only OTX015 the US-type strain of E. maxima was present. Similarly, E. mitis was identified by primers specific for both E. mitis1 and E. mitis5 in all the farms that were positive for E. mitis. Mixed infections of Eimeria spp. were recorded in all farms with a minimum of at least three species (in four broiler farms). All seven Eimeria spp. were identified in three farms. Multiplex PCR using SCAR primers was standardised with pure DNA of all seven species of Eimeria. Amplicons of E. acervulina

(811 bp), E. brunetti (626 bp), E. maxima (272 bp), E. mitis (460 bp), E. necatrix (200 bp), E. praecox (354 bp) and E. tenella (539 bp) were visualised with individual primer pairs as well as in multiplex PCR (data not shown). In field samples, the one-tube multiplex PCR could identify E. maxima, E. mitis, E. necatrix, E. praecox Phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase and E. tenella, in 16.7%, 3.3%, 43.3%, 3.3% and 13.3% farms, respectively. E. acervulina and E. brunetti were not identified in any of the farms screened by one-tube multiplex PCR. A maximum of two Eimeria spp. were identified in six farms, while for 11 farms no Eimeria spp. were recorded by one-tube multiplex PCR. However, two-tube multiplex PCR identified E. acervulina, E. maxima, E. mitis, E. praecox, E. necatrix and E. tenella, in 36.7%, 43.3%, 53.3%, 56.7%, 6.7% and 46.7% farms, respectively ( Fig. 1, Supplementary Table 2). A maximum of five Eimeria species were identified in five farms, while in two farms no Eimeria spp.

Eisenmann and Malina82 examined the available data for peak V˙O2 in American boys and girls in the 20th century in the context of potential secular changes in AF. Boys and girls were classified into three age groups and estimated mean values were determined for boys from the 1930s through the 1990s and for girls from the 1960s through the 1990s. Mean values were fit by least squares, goodness-of-fit regression lines and it was noted that peak V˙O2 had remained relatively stable among boys of all ages and in young girls. In adolescent girls, particularly those 15 years and older, mean peak V˙O2 was

reported to have decreased by ∼17% over the past few decades. However, scrutiny of the data LDN-193189 solubility dmso reveals only a ∼4% range in the mean peak V˙O2 of 15–19-year-old girls in the 1960s, 1980s, and 1990s (1.95, 2.03, and 1.98 L/min respectively). The girls in the 1970s, who were, on average, 4.5 cm taller but 1.7 kg lighter than those in 1990s samples, showed

a mean peak V˙O2 value ∼18%–20% (2.39 L/min) higher than girls from other decades. This indicates that older girls’ AF increased from the 1960s to 1970s but then fell back to 1960s values over the next two decades. Using a systematic review and meta-analytical strategy a more recent review identified peak V˙O2 data, expressed in ratio with body mass, for >4000 9–17-year-olds from five countries. It was reported that over the time period 1962–1994 there was a very small mean change buy LBH589 in peak V˙O2 of −0.3%.83 These

exercises in data gathering are interesting and consistent but they provide only partial insights into temporal trends GABA Receptor in peak V˙O2. They are not epidemiological studies but compilations of small studies providing local snapshots and involving volunteer participants who may not reflect the population from which they are drawn. Large data sets on the 20mSRT are available and an analysis of the 20mSRT performance of 129,882 6–19-year-olds from 11 countries over the period 1981–2000 indicated an annual decline in sample-weighted, mean rates of change of −0.3% to −0.5% in children and −1.0% in adolescents. A great deal of variability across countries was noted ranging from a mean increase per year of 0.5% in girls from Greece to an annual 1.9% decline in U.S. boys.84 In a more recent publication of 20mSRT performances the same author reviewed data collected between 1964 and 2008, from 25,245,203 9–17-year-olds, from 28 countries. A large deterioration in young people’s performance was noted with a mean decline of 13.3% since 1975.83 20mSRT performance is strongly influenced by the body mass the participant carries over the distance run and there is compelling evidence of an increase in young people’s body fatness in recent decades.