Therefore, the estimate of the particle age (the buy Idelalisib average time for the coastal hit) is apparently underestimated for areas with a low probability of coastal hits. The cell-wise probabilities of coastal hits Pi,j(k) and particle age Ai,j(k) are calculated for each time window k   (out of a total of N   = 170 time windows) in a straightforward way as the average of the relevant values pmkij, amkij over all M   particles released into a particular cell (i  , j  ): equation(1) Pi,j(k)=1M∑m=1Mpmkij,Ai,j(k)=1M∑m=1Mamkij.Here pmkij and amkij are the values of the counters showing, respectively, whether the m-th particle released into grid cell (i, j) at the beginning of the k-th time window has reached the coast during

this window and the particle age either at the Selleckchem SGI-1776 instant of the first coastal hit or, alternatively, the duration of this time window if the particle remains offshore. This procedure leads to two sets of 2D maps (with a spatial resolution equal to that of the circulation model) of the cell-wise probability of particles released into a particular cell hitting the coast (below referred to as ‘probability’) and the mean time (particle age) for coastal hits for particles from this

cell. The first quantity is a variation of the measure of the probability of coastal hits used by Soomere et al. (2010) to identify the equiprobability line for coastal hits in the Gulf of Finland. The two variables obviously mirror each other to some extent. For example, the minimum of probability evidently occurs more or less where the particle age reaches a maximum. Consequently, the optimum fairways found on the basis of these fields should be located close to each other. The difference between them can be interpreted as a measure of the uncertainty of the entire approach (Soomere et al. 2010). Note that particle age is really much more informative. For example, it is easy to convert particle age to probability (if the age of a particle is less than the duration of the time window, a coastal hit has occurred) but it is impossible to convert the probability PIK3C2G to age. We start the analysis of the similarities and differences

of the results for different model resolutions by comparing the average values of the probability P(k)=〈Pi,j(k)〉 and particle age A(k)=〈Ai,j(k)〉 over all particles released into the entire Gulf of Finland for a particular time window k  . Here, the angled brackets signify the operation of taking the arithmetic mean over all L   sea points in the calculation area (L   = 2270 for the 2 nm model, L   = 8810 for the 1 nm model and L   = 31838 for the 0.5 nm model ( Andrejev et al. 2010)). Another pair of important quantities are the cumulative average probability P¯(n) for the coastal hit and the cumulative average age A¯(n) of all particles over the entire calculation area and for the first n time windows. They are defined in the classical way: equation(2) P¯(n)=1n∑k=1nP(k),A¯(n)=1n∑k=1nA(k).

The paucity of collagenesis and microangiogenesis in nonpolypoid adenomas suggest that these 2 molecular signals are either inadequately or not elaborated, elaborated but not released, or locally abrogated.18 Intraepithelial lymphocytes (IELs) are often seen in polypoid and nonpolypoid adenomas. Nonpolypoid adenomas with HGD contain more IELs than those with LGD, implying that the degree of IEL infiltration increases with increasing degree of dysplastic severity and/or with the increasing biologic age of the adenoma. Notably, 38% of the nonpolypoid adenomas exhibited a subjacent lymphoid aggregate.19

It is not inconceivable that lymphoid aggregates might evolve as an immunologic mucosal response, as do occur in newly formed lymphoid aggregates in CC.20 Intraepithelial granules CP-868596 price (Leuchtenberger bodies) are often found in polypoid and nonpolypoid adenomas. In a survey, 84% of the nonpolypoid (flat) adenomas exhibited apoptotic granules. The overwhelming majority of the apoptotic granules

were seen in the subnuclear basal aspect of the dysplastic cells facing the basement membrane, denoting that the cells responsible for the apoptotic granules were to be found in the vicinity of the lamina propria normally infiltrated by lymphocytes.21 Direct immunoperoxidase detection of nuclear DNA fragmentation and transmission electron microscopy comfirmed that these DNA-containing bodies were apoptotic (nuclear) Ganetespib price fragments from disintegrated lymphocytes, and not nuclear remnants from dead dysplastic cells.22 In fact, dysplastic cells remained undamaged (as deduced from transmission electronmicroscopy and nuclear DNA proliferation markers). Semiquantitative Etomidate assessments of apoptotic granules showed that the number of flat adenomas with excessive granular density was highest amongst those with HGD. Hence, apoptosis in nonpolypoid adenomas might express a mechanism of cell defense, whereby neoplastic cells inflict

apoptosis on IEL in advanced nonpolypoid adenomas, through the Fas-FasL pathway.23 Importantly, the frequency of apoptotic granules in flat adenomas is similar in Japan and Sweden, implying that apoptosis in those lesions neither is influenced by race nor by the environment. The authors demonstrated a low K-ras mutation rate in flat adenomas. Cancers arising de novo were significantly associated with loss of heterozygosity at chromosome 3p. 24 The chronologic appearance of flat adenomas was traced in a cohort of rats injected with dimethylhydrazine (DMH). Flat adenomas developed earlier (week 13) than polypoid adenomas (week 15). Flat adenomas were more numerous on week 19, whereas polypoid adenomas were more numerous on week 22.

Precursor peak areas were quantified using the “precursor ions area detector” module of Proteome Discoverer. Peptides found at 1% FDR (false discovery rate) were used by the protein grouping algorithm in PD to infer protein identities. In the presented study, we investigated CNDP1 glycosylation in plasma by

Olaparib nmr using Western blot analysis and developed sandwich immunoassays by raising monoclonal anti-CNDP1 antibodies. These binders were then epitope mapped for identifying matching pairs of antibodies to develop sandwich assays. During four rounds of analysis, here called phases I–IV, these assays were utilized to determine difference in CNDP1 plasma levels through in sample sets from

two independent cohorts, as outlined in Fig. 1. In previous work [5], Western blot analysis of plasma revealed bands at ±55 kDa and ±150 kDa when using HPA008933 (denoted HPA-1). To investigate whether glycosylation of plasma CNDP1 plays a role in the differential profiles of aggressive and less aggressive forms, plasma as well as recombinant CNDP1 protein were exposed to selleck chemicals llc PNGaseF treatment to facilitate enzymatic removal of predicted N-linked glycan structures. As shown in Fig. 2A for recombinant CNDP1, two proximate bands were observed at ±55 kDa and upon incubation with PNGaseF the upper band disappeared, which suggested that one CNDP1 isoform was glycosylated when expressed in HEK293T cells alongside an isoform that appeared not to carry a glycosylation. In plasma, PNGaseF treatment of controls and cases (group at risk) was effective for both to a similar extend and a shift toward lower molecular masses was observed for bands at ±55 kDa as well as the band at ±150 kDa (Fig. 2B and C). Thalidomide Importantly, the bands at now ±50 kDa revealed concordant decrease in intensity as found in previous observations and analysis of plasma

without PNGaseF. This suggests that glycosylation status of CNDP1 detected in Western blot analysis did not differ between case and control groups. A main aim of this study was to develop sandwich immunoassays for CNDP1 to determine the protein in plasma other then using discovery tools such as antibody arrays and to allow for a better selectivity of the analysis. For this matter, monoclonal antibodies toward residues 32–133 of CNDP1 were raised. Prior to further analysis, all antibodies listed (Supplementary Table 1) were epitope mapped using peptide bead arrays of 15-mer peptides covering two CNDP1 fragments covering N-terminal residues, respectively (Fig. 3A). As previously described [14], this information was then further used to purify fractions form the polyclonal antibody HPA-1 based on peptides. Out of a total of 23 antibodies, including HPAs, MABs and CABs, CNDP1 epitope maps of 6 were shown in Fig. 3.

Apesar dos avanços no diagnóstico, no controlo da inflamação e da otimização nutricional, a restrição da estatura-alvo prevista ainda ocorre numa parcela importante dos doentes mesmo com um aparente controlo ótimo da doença. O crescimento ocorre continuamente ao longo da infância até à terceira década de vida e uma das maneiras Osimertinib molecular weight de o medir é através do cálculo da velocidade de crescimento, isto é, o acréscimo de centímetros por ano. A velocidade de crescimento vai diminuindo ao longo da vida, com exceção da fase pubertária onde o acréscimo de velocidade de crescimento permite ao adolescente adquirir a estatura adulta. Desde

a infância até à idade adulta ocorrem várias alterações somáticas que, na puberdade, por influência de hormonas sexuais, permitem o desenvolvimento de carateres sexuais primários

e secundários que acompanham o crescimento. A evolução pubertal pode ser expressa em etapas denominadas estádios de Tanner e que se iniciam no estádio I, correspondente ao indivíduo pré-púbere, até ao estádio V onde já aconteceu a maturação buy Thiazovivin sexual completa. O pico máximo de crescimento é variável segundo o género, ocorrendo mais cedo e antes da menarca nas raparigas e mais tardiamente nos rapazes (no estádio de Tanner IV), com determinantes genéticas que se manifestam em padrões familiares e variações étnicas distintas. O crescimento também sofre

a ação de fatores ambientais, sendo influenciado pela precocidade da síntese de hormonas sexuais, pelo estado nutricional e pela presença de doenças crónicas, malformativas 6-phosphogluconolactonase ou noxas que surgem antes ou no decorrer da puberdade. Em termos bioquímicos, o crescimento é regulado pela ação da hormona de crescimento (HC), hormona de síntese central mas com ação estimuladora da produção de fatores tróficos a nível periférico. O mais importante destes fatores denomina-se Insulin Growth Factor 1 (IGF-1) anteriormente denominado somatomedina C, proteína de síntese essencialmente hepática que atua em tecidos periféricos, um dos quais a placa de crescimento óssea. Além da produção hepática de IGF-1, existe também produção tecidular com ação parácrina e cuja ação é independente da regulação efetuada pela HC. A própria HC desempenha uma ação direta sobre a placa de crescimento transformando o tecido hialino ou células precursoras em células maduras: os condrócitos 10. Estes, por sua vez, ficam sensíveis à ação do IGF-1 ( fig. 1). A senescência dos condrócitos, ou seja, a perda de proliferação das camadas mais imaturas, traduz-se na diminuição da sua taxa de proliferação, frenando assim o alongamento ósseo e o crescimento. Nos fatores causais encontram-se, além da patologia em questão, o uso de corticoides.

, 2002 and Fitzgerald et al., 1994). Roscovitine datasheet In adult rats, Aδ and C but not Aβ primary afferent fibers transmit painful stimuli. In contrast, in P7 rats Aβ primary afferents can also transmit such stimuli (Fitzgerald and Jennings, 1999). It has been hypothesized that increased activity in Aβ-fibers early in development may be modulated by sub-threshold

C-fiber depolarization that primes the spinal cord for Aβ-fiber input (Dickenson and Rahman, 1999). Functionally, in adult rodents opioid agonists selectively inhibit Aδ- and C-fiber nociceptors but not Aβ-fibers (Dickenson et al., 1987 and Rahman and Dickenson, 1999). In contrast, in young rats morphine can inhibit Aβ- and C-fiber-mediated activity in the lumbar spinal cord (Rahman et al., 1998), which parallels expression of μORs in both small (Aδ and C) and large (Aβ) diameter cell bodies in the dorsal root ganglion. Based on the results of our study, we suggest that at P16 the animals do not exhibit increased nociceptive behavior in the formalin test because repeated exposure to a μOR agonist has influenced the development of C-fibers during maturation. However, we did observe that following the formalin test, the treated animals presented an inflammation-like

UK-371804 concentration edema in the formalin-injected hindpaw, which was measured and compared to the volume of the non-injected hindpaw by plethysmometry. It is interesting to note that there were no differences between the volume of formalin-injected Tryptophan synthase hindpaws in the morphine and control groups (data not shown). Taking into account the importance of a deeper understanding of the effects throughout

life of opioid analgesia at birth, and that previous results from our group showed that morphine exposure in early life lead to changes in the analgesic response in adult life (Rozisky et al., 2008), we hypothesized that the use of opioids in early life can induce persistent changes in nociceptive and opioid analgesic responses. We conclude from the present results that the altered nociceptive response induced by repeated morphine exposure can change in an age-dependent manner. In addition, the altered nociceptive response was expressed until adulthood, and this effect was partially reversed by indomethacin and completely reversed by an NMDA receptor antagonist. However, it should be noted that the response is complex and unlikely to be predominantly caused by any single mediator. Taken together, our data indicate that opioids elicit glutamatergic adaptations at the system level. Finally, the behavioral changes seen in response to repeated exposure to morphine during early life illustrate the need to examine nociceptive processing in neonatal patients who have been exposed to therapeutic morphine; moreover, this indicates the importance of evaluating the clinical consequences of long-term opioid administration.

94). A corresponding analysis of women’s judgments of own-sex faces also produced a single factor (labeled women’s preference for cues of weight in women’s faces) that explained 83% of the variance in women’s preference scores and was highly correlated with both of the original variables (both r = 0.91). Similar factor analyses were conducted for men’s face

preferences. Analysis of men’s preferences for perceived adiposity and cues of BMI in opposite-sex faces produced a single factor ERK inhibitor libraries (labeled men’s preference for cues of weight in women’s faces) that explained 86% of the variance in men’s preference scores and was highly correlated with both of the original variables (both r = 0.93). A corresponding analysis of men’s judgments of own-sex faces also produced a single factor (labeled

men’s PD-166866 mouse preference for cues of weight in men’s faces) that explained 86% of the variance in men’s preference scores and was highly correlated with both of the original variables (both r = 0.93). These preference scores were used in our main analyses. Higher scores indicate stronger preferences for facial characteristics associated with heavier weight. To test for main effects of TDDS subscales and possible interactions between TDDS subscales and sex of face judged, responses were analyzed using ANCOVAs. Women’s preferences for cues of weight in men’s and women’s faces were analyzed first. Sex of face judged (male, female) was a within-subject factor and pathogen disgust, sexual disgust, and moral disgust were entered simultaneously as covariates. This analysis revealed no significant effects (all F < 1.33, all p > 0.25, all partial η2 < 0.023). However, a corresponding analysis for men’s preferences revealed significant effects

of pathogen disgust (F(1,58) = 5.99, p = 0.017, partial η2 = 0.094) and moral disgust (F(1,58) = 5.73, p = 0.020, partial η2 = 0.090). There were no other significant effects (all F < 1.28, all p > 0.26, all partial η2 < 0.021). To interpret the main effects of pathogen disgust and moral disgust on men’s preferences C1GALT1 we conducted a regression analysis, in which the average of men’s preference for cues of weight in women’s faces and men’s preference for cues of weight in men’s faces was entered as the dependent variable and pathogen disgust and moral disgust were entered simultaneously as predictors. This analysis revealed a significant negative relationship between pathogen disgust and men’s preference for cues of weight (t = −2.52, standardized β = −0.35, p = 0.014) and a significant positive relationship between moral disgust and men’s preference for cues of weight (t = 2.43, standardized β = 0.34, p = 0.018). Including sexual disgust as an additional predictor in this regression analysis did not alter the pattern of results.

Protein concentration was measured by the Bradford method [55], using BSA as the standard. The fraction containing mono-PEG-StAP3 species was the employed for biological studies. Prior to assays, this fraction was dialyzed against 20 mM Tris–HCl pH 8, for 48 h at 4 °C, using a cellulose membrane (Sigma D9652-100) to remove DTT and SDS. selleck chemicals The fraction was then stored at −20 °C for further analyses. To evaluate the effect of mono-PEG-StAP3 on the germination of F. solani spores, in vitro bioassays were performed as described by Guevara et al. [26]. To quantify the effect of mono-PEG-StAP3 on spore germination, the bioassays were examined by observation of four fields in Neubauer camera with a bright-field microscope. The results

from three independent experiments were analyzed to calculate the percentage of inhibition. B. cereus and E. coli were grown in Luria–Bertani selleck medium at 37 °C with continuous shaking to exponential phase. The bacteria were harvested from broth by centrifugation at 3500 rpm for 10 min, washed and resuspended in sterile PBS at a concentration of 104 c.f.u./ml. The concentration of bacteria was verified and quantified by culture on sheep blood agar plates. One hundred microliters of bacterial suspension were plated on 96-well polystyrene microtiter plates (BD Biosciences), and serial dilutions of mono-PEG-StAP3 were added to individual wells in triplicate and incubated for 6 h at 37 °C

with rocking. Bacteria were subsequently dispersed and aliquots were plated on blood agar plates to obtain colony counts. Pathogen viability after protein treatment was determined from the number of colonies obtained on the buffer-treated control plates compared to the number of colonies from protein-treated samples. The half maximal inhibitory concentration

(IC50) was calculated as the concentration of protein required to inhibit microbial growth by 50%. F. solani spores were incubated overnight at 25 °C with water as control or exposed to different 3-oxoacyl-(acyl-carrier-protein) reductase amounts of mono-PEG-StAP3, as described by Guevara et al. [26]. SYTOX Green probe (Molecular Probes) was added to a final concentration of 0.5 μM and qualitative detection of SYTOX Green uptake was performed. After 30 min incubation, the fluorescence of the sample was observed with a Nikon Eclipse E200 fluorescence microscope (Nikon, Tokyo, Japan) equipped with a B-2A Fluorescein filter set. Positive controls included spores treated with 0.5% (w/w) Triton X-100. Fluorescence was measured using a FluorosKan Ascent (Thermo Electron Corporation, Finland) fluorescence measurement system at an excitation wavelength of 480 nm and an emission wavelength of 530 nm. Fluorescence values were corrected by subtracting the fluorescence value of a buffer incubated with SYTOX Green. Fresh human red blood cells (hRBC) were rinsed in PBS, centrifuged for 10 min at 800 rpm three times, and resuspended in PBS to a final erythrocyte concentration of 4% (v/v).

1J), whereas maxillary injury sites remained filled with connective/fibrous tissue (Fig. 1L). Therefore, in addition to their distinct embryonic origins, and a measurable osteogenic capacity of bone grafts derived from the two skeletal elements, craniofacial and long bones have different rates of healing.

We reasoned that this difference would likely manifest as a change in the rate or www.selleckchem.com/products/Gemcitabine-Hydrochloride(Gemzar).html extent of implant osseointegration. Our primary interest is in addressing failures in oral implant osseointegration. Given the different healing potentials of long bones and craniofacial bones, we opted to develop an oral implant model system that would afford us with the ability to rigorously assess the program of oral implant osseointegration. We first carried out a series of experiments in which implants were placed in the tibia. The surgical procedure,

the osseointegration response, and the molecular and cellular characteristics of this process have been documented elsewhere [6], [11], [14], [15], [17], [26] and [27]. Here, we show that new bone, originating from the tibial marrow cavity, is first evident on post-surgical day 5 (Supplemental Fig. 1A). The peri-implant bone is osseointegrated selleckchem by day 7 (Supplemental Fig. 1B), and undergoes extensive remodeling at subsequent time points (Supplemental Fig. 1C–E). We compared osseointegration in the tibia with osseointegration in the maxilla. check details Maxillary injuries were created immediately anterior to the first molar, along the alveolar crest in the edentulous space. After anesthesia, the oral cavity was rinsed with povidone–iodine solution (Fig. 2A) and a full thickness crestal incision was performed (Fig. 2B).

The flap was raised and the alveolar bone was accessed (Fig. 2C). In an attempt to reduce trauma to the alveolar bone, a pilot hole was first created using a 0.3 mm drill, followed by a 0.45 mm drill (Fig. 2D). The implant (0.6 mm; Fig. 2E) was subsequently screwed into place (Fig. 2F). The gingival tissue was sutured in place, effectively enclosing the implant (Fig. 2G). The position of the implant was anterior to the first molar, along the edentulous ridge, perforating the sinus in all cases (Fig. 2H). After 14 days, the enclosed implant could be visualized through the tissue (Fig. 2I). Thus, the procedure used to place a murine oral implant was very similar to the procedure used for humans. We first evaluated murine implants using histological analyses and found that within 7 days, there was evidence of bone formation in the peri-implant space (Fig. 3A). Upon close examination, the new bone appeared as an extension of the periosteal surfaces of the native maxillary bone (Fig. 3A′,A″). Fibroblasts also occupied the space between the cut edge of the bone and the implant surface (Fig. 3A′,A″). On day 14, more new bone was in contact with the implant surface (Fig. 3B, B′ and E).

1% (v/v) TFA]. The elution was monitored

at 214 nm, and fractions were manually collected into 5 mL glass vials. MS analyses were conducted on an ion trap/time-of-flight mass spectrometer (IT-TOF/MS) (Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan) equipped with an electrospray ionization source. The setting conditions for optimized operations were: positive mode, electrospray voltage 4.5 kV, CDL temperature 200 °C, block heater temperature 200 °C, nebulizer gas (N2) flow of 1.5 L/min, trap cooling gas (Ar) flow of 95 mL/min, ion trap pressure 1.7 × 10−2 Pa, TOF region pressure 1.5 × 10−4 Pa, ion accumulation time 50 ms. The auto-tuning was performed with a Na-TFA solution and showed the following parameters: for the positive mode, error 3.1 ppm and resolution 11,000; and for the negative mode, error 2.3 ppm and resolution

13,000. The search for templates for the AMP-I target Dabrafenib mouse sequence was performed with Blastp (Altschul et al., 1997) and the alignment (Table 1) was formatted and input into the program. The structure of the homologous peptide (Mastoparan-X) was selected from the Protein Data Bank (PDB) (Berman et al., 2000), which was solved experimentally by RMN (PDB ID: 1A13) (Kusunoki et al., 1998). The AMP-I model was built with restrained-based modeling implemented in MODELLER9v8 (Sali and Blundell, 1993), with the standard protocol of the comparative protein structure modeling methodology, by satisfaction of spatial restraints (Sali and Overington, 1994; Marti-Renom et al., 2000). A total of 1000 models were created and the best models were selected according to MODELLER objective GDC-0980 purchase function (Shen and Sali, 2006) and stereochemical analysis with PROCHECK (Laskowsky et al., 1993). The primary sequence similarity between Y-27632 2HCl the peptide with the template was 65% (identity 58%). The final models were selected with 100% residues in favored regions of the Ramachandran plot (Fig. 1), with the best values of the overall G-factor and the

lower values of energy minimization ( Table 2). For visualization of the model of AMP-I, the PyMOL program was used ( DeLano, 2002). The overall stereochemical quality of the final models for Agelaia MP-I was assessed by the PROCHECK program (Koradi et al., 1996). The root mean square deviation (rmsd) between Cα–Cα atom’s distance was superposed using the program LSQKAB from CCP4 (Konno et al., 2007). The cutoff for hydrogen bonds and salt bridges was 3.3 Å. The contact area for the complexes was calculated using AREAIMOL and RESAREA (Konno et al., 2007). The root mean square deviation (rmsd) differences from ideal geometries for bond lengths and bond angles were calculated with X-PLOR (Krishnakumari and Nagaraj, 1997). The G-factor value is essentially just log-odds score based on the observed distributions of the stereochemical parameters.

5A for statistical significance; Fig. 5B for enrichment). Processes that pertain to oxidation–reduction were commonly dysregulated in L-E, H/W, LnA, and LnC rats but not in F344 and Wis rats, perhaps implying different mechanisms that animals possess for handling TCDD. By contrast toxin metabolic processes were significantly enriched across all

six strains, and many core TCDD-responsive genes (e.g. Cyp1a1) lie within this highly enriched category. In order to gain additional insight into the functional processes of the candidate genes, we performed RedundancyMiner analysis. Redundant GO categories were eliminated and parent categories were weighted to prevent over-representation. Redundant TSA HDAC molecular weight GO terms were collapsed into groups; GO categories that were recognized as statistically significant from GOMiner analysis were also significant after application of RedundancyMiner. Oxidoreductase activity and toxin metabolic process showed significant enrichment before and after RedundancyMiner analysis (FDR < 0.01),

indicating the robustness of the results (Fig. 5C). To provide additional mechanistic insight into how this functional diversity of TCDD responses is generated, we hypothesized that a small number of transcriptional regulators were at play. We therefore analyzed the occurrence of transcription factor binding sites (TFBSs) in TCDD-responsive genes using enrichment analysis as previously described (Boutros et al., 2011). We plotted the number of occurrences and the maximal conservation scores of each motif CP-868596 cost against the number of rat strains in which the gene was affected by TCDD treatment. AHRE-I has been found to reside on common

AHR-regulated genes such as Cyp1a1 where it binds the ligand–AHR–ARNT complex and enhances transcription. More recently, several studies have revealed that the AHRE-II motif aids transcription of Cyp1a2 and some other TCDD-responsive genes ( Boutros et al., 2004 and Sogawa et al., 2004). We analyzed the number and conservation of each motif across the strains ( Figs. 6A–D). AHRE-I motifs were conserved within genes that were significantly altered across all six strains, whereas Palmatine AHRE-II motifs were not conserved across the rat strains that we tested. Finally, to examine potential roles of the selected genes in mediating TCDD toxicity and to check whether the responsiveness of these genes is regulated in a time- or dose-dependent way, we conducted PCR analysis on six genes across 152 animals (84 H/W rats and 68 L-E rats) in both time-course (from 0 to 384 h) and dose–response experiments (from 0 to 3000 μg/kg). Experiments involving different time points were used to determine whether the genes exhibit acute or downstream effects; dose–response experiments were used to observe patterns of expression with increasing dose that might relate to doses that evoke hepatic toxicity.