[33]. Affected individuals with EF complain of a chronic intense intractable pruritus. Clinically, the skin eruption is characterised by erythematosus perifollicular papules with occasional pustules and is often heavily excoriated. Confluent erythematous plaques and urticarial lesions have also been reported. In most cases, the distribution is truncal. A peripheral eosinophilia has been reported in 25–50% of patients with HIV related EF.34–36 Moreover, elevated serum IgE levels

have been found in a high proportion of patients.34,37 Malassezia folliculitis has also been described in postallogeneic marrow transplant, kidney and heart transplant recipients.14,19,28 Skin mTOR inhibitor eruptions as a result of MF in these patients can easily be confused with other conditions, such as acne vulgaris, Candida folliculitis, chronic urticaria and other forms of folliculitis that are commonly seen in immunocompromised patients (Fig. 1). Rhie et al. [14] reported a series of 11 heart transplant patients who were on a standard immunosuppressive regimen with cyclosporine, prednisolone and azathioprine that developed MF. Diagnosis was confirmed microscopically

in all 11 cases with culture confirmation in six cases (M. pachydermatis and M. furfur in three cases each). Recently, a minor outbreak has been reported in an intensive care unit in three adult patients with predisposing factors Src inhibitor such as immunosuppression and/or antibiotic treatment.18 In this report, Malassezia furfur folliculitis was related to the high temperatures and humidity in association with the

lack of optimum patient skin hygiene that resulted in sebum accumulation. Another important characteristic of this mini-outbreak was the fact that it occurred simultaneously in the three patients and that they were cared in the ICU in neighbouring beds. Histological examination of skin biopsies in patients with Malassezia folliculitis shows, as the name suggests, invasion Fenbendazole and dilatation of follicles with large number of Malassezia yeast and rare hyphae, an inflammatory infiltrate consisting of lymphocytes, histiocytes, neutrophils and focal rupture of the follicular epithelium.38,39 Diagnosis of MF is mainly accomplished by microscopic examination of skin scrapings of affected areas stained with 10–15% potassium hydroxide or Albert’s solution to dissolve the keratin and debris. As Malassezia spp. are part of the normal cutaneous flora, their isolation in culture does not contribute to the diagnosis. Treatment with topical application of imidazole or selenium sulphide is usually effective in the immunocompetent host. However, in cases with extensive or recalcitrant lesions and in immunocompromised individuals, systemic antifungal treatment with fluconazole or itraconazole is recommended.

The small RNAs (<300 nucleotides) isolated were 3′-extended with a poly(A) tail using poly(A) polymerase. An oligonucleotide tag was then ligated to the poly(A) tail for later fluorescent dye staining, and hybridization was performed overnight on a μParaflo microfluidic chip using a microcirculation pump (Atactic Technologies). On the microfluidic chip, each detection probe consisted of a chemically modified nucleotide coding segment complementary to the target miRNA (miRBase; http://microrna.sanger.ac.uk/sequences/) or other RNA (control or customer-defined sequences) and a spacer segment of polyethylene glycol to extend the coding segment away from the substrate. The detection probes were made

by in situ synthesis using photogenerated reagent chemistry. The hybridization melting temperatures

were balanced by chemical PD0325901 solubility dmso modifications of the detection probes. Hybridization used 100 μl 6× SSPE buffer (0.90M NaCl, 60 mM Na2HPO4, 6 mM EDTA, pH 6.8) containing 25% formamide at 34°C. After hybridization, probes were detected with fluorescence labeling using tag-specific Cy5 dyes. Hybridization images were collected using a laser scanner (GenePix 4000B, Molecular Device) and digitized using Array-Pro image analysis software (Media Cybernetics). miRNA expressions with a fold change (ratio of experimental group to control group) of 2.0 or greater (upregulated) or 0.5 or less (downregulated) were considered significant. Microarray Resveratrol assay was performed using a service provider (LC Sciences). Eight heart graft samples were Napabucasin clinical trial collected from each experimental group for QRT-PCR assay. Significantly upregulated and downregulated miRNAs were selected for relative quantitative

analysis based on miRNA microarray results. All samples were normalized to a miRNA mammalian endogenous control gene, U6. Total RNA extraction and miRNA isolation were achieved using the mirVana miRNA Isolation Kit (Applied Biosystems). Using the miRNA reverse transcription kit (Applied Biosystems), the RNA was then reverse transcribed into cDNA with gene-specific stem-loop RT primers. QRT-PCR was performed using, on average, 100 ng of cDNA per port loaded onto a Taqman miRNA assay (Applied Biosystems). QRT-PCR cycle parameters for the PCR reaction was 95°C for 10 min followed by 40 cycles of a denaturing step at 95°C for 15 seconds and an annealing/extension step at 60°C for 60 seconds. All reactions were run in triplicate. The relative amount of each miRNA to U6 RNA was described by using the standard 2−ΔΔCt method,[10] in which ΔΔCt = (ΔCtxenogeneic group − ΔCtsyngenic control group), ΔCt = (CtmiRNA − CtU6). Microarray data were analyzed by first subtracting the background and then normalizing the signals using a LOWESS filter (locally weighted regression). Statistical comparison between various groups was performed by t-test for independent samples, as appropriate, using the SPSS software.

IL1-β was inhibited to its baseline in several, but not all experiments; IL-6 inhibition was always significant but almost never total. As indicated above, IL-10 secretion followed IL-1β and IL-6 secretion. We were surprised to observe that IL-10 was only mildly inhibited relative to IL-1β, and even to IL-6 (Fig. 3C). Inhibition of IL-1β was 75–100% in most experiments, and IL-6 was inhibited 40–70%, whereas IL-10 inhibition was only 20–35%. Thus, interaction with iC3b-opsonized apoptotic cells not only markedly inhibited the proinflammatory response to zymosan, but also changed the relative secretion of cytokines,

favoring a high anti-inflammatory-proinflammatory cytokine secretion ratio. Similar results were obtained while using LPS. IL-1β and IL-6 secretion were reduced from 160±25 to 31±14 and from 1820±188 to 555±88 pg/mL respectively, following one h exposure to opsonized apoptotic cells (p<0.001). In the same manner, https://www.selleckchem.com/products/cetuximab.html interaction with iC3b-opsonized apoptotic cells downregulated MHC class II, CD86, CD83, CD40, and CCR7, as well IL-12 secretion (data not shown, see 5). In order to further RG7422 cell line verify that the decrease in proinflammatory cytokines was not due to decreased ingestion of zymosan, we documented zymosan uptake following

macrophage−apoptotic cell interaction. As shown in Fig. 3D, zymosan uptake was not inhibited following apoptotic cell interaction, and was even augmented. Thus, the inhibitory pattern seen in secretion of proinflammatory cytokines was not due to decreased phagocytosis of zymosan. The specificity of the uptake was further shown by using fibrinogen-coated plates. Zymosan induced proinflammatory cytokines from macrophages differentiated on fibronectin-coated plates,

resulting in IL-1β and IL-6 secretion reaching 197±21 and 2120±118 pg/mL, respectively. Thus, no proinflammatory cytokine inhibition was shown using fibrinogen as a ligand. Furthermore, addition of opsonized apoptotic cells reduced cytokine secretion to 29±11 and 611±48, respectively, following 1 h exposure to opsonized apoptotic cells (p<0.001 and p<0.001). Taken together, the results indicate that CD11b/CD18 and CD11c/CD18 response to ligand is specific to iC3b-opsonized apoptotic cells, and not every ligand (i.e. fibronectin) will induce the same response. Since it has been proposed that inhibition of the proinflammtory response is an autocrine/paracrine process 2, 4, and Methocarbamol we were able to detect IL-10 secretion, we examined the effect of anti-IL-10. As shown in Fig. 4A and B, anti-IL-10 had no effect, suggesting an alternative mode of inhibition. Although TGF-β was not detected, anti-TGF-β was also examined because TGF-β is sometimes hard to detect and can be released in the preformed mode. As shown in Fig. 4A and B, anti-TGF-β did not have any effect on inhibition. Thus, in this system we were not able to demonstrate a paracrine/autocrine effect of IL-10 or TGF-β that led to inhibition of the immune response to zymosan and LPS.

B7-H3/pMXC and B7-H3/pMXs-neo were used for SCCVII, EL4, E.G7, B16 cells and J558L cells, respectively. Tumour MK1775 cells were retrovirally transduced with B7-H3.28 For infecting EL4, SCCVII and B16 cells, pVSV-G was co-transfected

to generate pan-tropic retrovirus. After drug selection, transfectants expressing high levels of B7-H3 were sorted by flow cytometry as described previously.31 The TLT-2 complementary DNA was inserted into pMXs-IG, and control IRES-GFP (pMXs-IG) or TLT-2/pMXs-IG was retrovirally transduced into OT-I CD8+ T cells stimulated with OVA peptide (SIINFEKL).28 GFP+ cells were sorted by flow cytometry and used as mock- or TLT-2-transduced OT-I CD8+ T cells. CD4+ and CD8+ T cells from BALB/c mice were isolated by negative selection, as described previously.28 The purity of the CD4+ and CD8+ T cells was over 95% and 90%, respectively, as confirmed by flow cytometry. For the anti-CD3 mAb-induced co-stimulation assay, isolated T cells (2 × 105/well) were co-cultured with mitomycin C-treated parental P815 or B7-H3-transduced P815 (B7-H3/P815) cells at the indicated responder : stimulator ratios, in the presence of anti-CD3 mAb (145-2C11, 0·2 μg/ml in CD4+ T cells and 1·0 μg/ml in CD8+ T cells). The proliferative responses for the final 18 hr of the 3-day culture and IFN-γ production in the culture

supernatants at 72 hr were then measured.32 Anti-CD3 PI3K inhibitor mAb-induced redirected cytotoxicity against P815 and B7-H3/P815 cells was measured by the 6-hr JAM test.33,34 Splenocytes from OT-1 mice were cocultured with mitomycin C-treated E.G7 cells for 3 days for in vitro sensitization.

The cells were harvested, separated into CD8+ T cells, and used as in vitro-sensitized pentoxifylline OT-I CD8+ T cells. Cytotoxicity against E.G7 and B7-H3/E.G7 was measured by a 6-hr JAM test. For the in vivo cytotoxicity assay, E.G7 and B7-H3/E.G7 cells were labelled with CellTracker Orange [5-(and-6)-(((4-chloromethyl)benzoyl)amino)] tetramethylrhodamine (CMTMR; 10 μm, Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA) and/or carboxyfluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester (CFSE; 10 μm, Invitrogen). The CMTMR-labelled cells (2 × 106) were mixed with a twofold number of CFSE-labelled parental E.G7 (A-mix) or B7-H3/E.G7 (B-mix) cells (4 × 106) and then the mixed cells were injected intraperitoneally (i.p.) into OT-I mice. Peritoneal exudate cells (PEC) were analysed by flow cytometry after 24 hr. B6 mice were sensitized in vivo by peritoneal injection with DBA/2-originated allogeneic P815 or B7-H3/P815 cells (2 × 107 cells) to evaluate CTL against the alloantigen. After 8 days, PEC were collected and cytotoxicity against P815 and B7-H3/P815 was measured as described above. The OT-I mice received a peritoneal injection of mitomycin C-treated OVA-expressing EL4 (E.G7 or B7-H3/E.G7) cells (2 × 107) to induce OVA-specific CTL. Three days later, PEC were harvested and cytotoxicity against E.G7 and B7-H3/E.G7 was assessed as described above.

However, presence of diffuse axonal expression of

Nav1.6 was more frequent within plaques with T cells infiltrate and microglial hyperplasia. On the other hand, Nav1.2 diffuse axonal expression seemed HTS assay to be independent of the neuropathological environment of the plaque. The cellular environment of the axon influences the differential expression of Nav channels. A better understanding of the influence of the inflammation on sodium channels mediated axonal degeneration could offer therapeutic perspectives. “
“This study was aimed to assess whether bone marrow stromal cells (BMSC) could ameliorate brain damage when transplanted into the brain of stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR-SP). The BMSC or vehicle was stereotactically engrafted into the striatum of male SHR-SP at 8 weeks of age. Daily loading with 0.5% NaCl-containing water was started from 9 weeks. MRIs and histological analysis were performed at 11 and 12 weeks, respectively. Wistar-Kyoto

rats were employed as the control. As a result, T2-weighted images demonstrated neither cerebral infarct nor intracerebral hemorrhage, but identified abnormal dilatation of the lateral ventricles in SHR-SP. HE staining demonstrated selective neuronal injury in their neocortices. Double fluorescence immunohistochemistry revealed that they had a decreased density of the collagen IV-positive microvessels and a decreased number of the microvessels INCB024360 purchase with normal integrity between basement membrane and astrocyte end-feet. BMSC transplantation significantly ameliorated the ventricular dilatation and the breakdown of neurovascular integrity. These findings strongly suggest that long-lasting hypertension may primarily damage neurovascular integrity and neurons, leading to tissue atrophy and ventricular dilatation prior to the occurrence of cerebral stroke. The BMSC may ameliorate these damaging processes when directly transplanted into the brain, opening the possibility of prophylactic next medicine to prevent microvascular

and parenchymal-damaging processes in hypertensive patients at higher risk for cerebral stroke. “
“S. L. Rankin, G. Zhu and S. J. Baker (2012) Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology38, 254–270 Insights gained from modelling high-grade glioma in the mouse High-grade gliomas (HGGs) are devastating primary brain tumours with poor outcomes. Advances towards effective treatments require improved understanding of pathogenesis and relevant model systems for preclinical testing. Mouse models for HGG provide physiologically relevant experimental systems for analysis of HGG pathogenesis. There are advantages and disadvantages to the different methodologies used to generate such models, including implantation, genetic engineering or somatic gene transfer approaches.

“
“K. Soma, Y.-J. Fu, K. Wakabayashi, O. Onodera, A. Kakita and H. Takahashi (2012) Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology38, 54–60 Co-occurrence of argyrophilic grain disease in sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis Aims: Phosphorylated TDP-43 (pTDP-43) is the pathological

protein responsible for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a fatal neurodegenerative disease. Recently, it has been reported that accumulation of pTDP-43 can occur in the brains H 89 mw of patients with argyrophilic grain disease (AGD), in which phosphorylated 4-repeat tau is the pathological protein. To elucidate the association of ALS with AGD, we examined the brains from 37 consecutively autopsied patients with sporadic ALS (age range 45–84 years, mean 71.5 ± 9.0 years). Methods: Sections from the frontotemporal lobe were stained with the Gallyas-Braak method and also immunostained with antibodies against phosphorylated tau, 4-repeat tau and pTDP-43. Results: Fourteen (38%) of the 37 ALS patients were found to have AGD. With regard to staging, 5 of these 14 cases were rated as I, 4 as II and 5 as III. pTDP-43 immunohistochemistry revealed the presence of positive neuronal and glial cytoplasmic inclusions in the affected medial

temporal lobe in many cases (93% and 64%, respectively). On the other hand, pTDP-43-positive small structures corresponding to argyrophilic grains were Selleckchem Rucaparib observed only in one case. A significant correlation was found between AGD and the Braak stage for neurofibrillary pathology (stage range 0–V, mean 2.1). However, there were no significant correlations between AGD and any other clinicopathological features, including dementia. Conclusions: The present findings suggest that co-occurrence of AGD in ALS is not uncommon, and in fact comparable with that in a number of diseases belonging to the tauopathies

or α-synucleinopathies. “
“C. K. Donat, B. Walter, W. Deuther-Conrad, K. Nieber, R. Bauer and P. Brust (2010) Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology36, 225–236 Alterations of cholinergic medroxyprogesterone receptors and the vesicular acetylcholine transporter after lateral fluid percussion injury in newborn piglets Aims: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the leading causes of death and disability in children. Adult animal models of TBI showed cholinergic alterations. However, there is no comparable data on immature animals. Therefore, this study investigates cholinergic markers in a large animal model of juvenile TBI. Methods: Twenty-seven female newborn piglets were subjected to lateral fluid percussion (FP) injury and compared with 12 untreated animals. After 6 h, animals were sacrificed and the brains removed. The hemispheres ipsilateral to FP-TBI from seven piglets and corresponding hemispheres from six control animals were used for autoradiography.

pertussis and B. parapertussis (Ensminger, 1953; Heininger et al., 2002). That pigment production correlated AG-14699 with species identity was confirmed by PCR analysis (on 10 pigmented and 10 nonpigmented colonies from a plate with colonies recovered from a mixed infection) using primers from the IS481 sequence for B. pertussis and

from the IS1001 sequence for B. parapertussis (Roorda et al., 2011). All animal experiments conformed to all relevant federal guidelines and institutional policies. Six-week-old female Balb/c mice (Charles River Laboratories) were inoculated intranasally with bacterial suspensions prepared as follows: bacterial strains were plated from a frozen culture on BG blood agar plates, incubated for 3 days for B. pertussis and 2 days for B. parapertussis at 37 °C, and bacterial growth was then transferred

to new plates and allowed to grow for an additional 2 days. Bacterial strains were resuspended and appropriate dilutions were made in sterile phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). Mice were anesthetized by inhalation of isoflurane (Baxter) and inoculated intranasally with 50 μL of inoculum. Viable counts were determined by dilution of a sample of the inoculum, which was then plated on BG blood agar plates, and colonies were counted 4–5 days later. Mice (minimum of four per group) were euthanized by carbon dioxide inhalation at defined time points; the lungs and trachea were removed as a unit and homogenized in 2 mL of sterile Decitabine mw PBS. Appropriate dilutions of the homogenate were plated on BG blood agar plates and colonies were counted after 4 days of incubation at 37 °C to determine CFU per respiratory

tract. One hundred colonies per mouse were patched onto BG blood agar plates for the determination of pigment production to distinguish between B. pertussis and B. parapertussis and to calculate the ratio of the two organisms in the mixture. All experiments were performed at least twice, with representative results shown. PT was purified from B. pertussis liquid culture supernatants using the fetuin–agarose affinity chromatography method (Kimura Selleck Palbociclib et al., 1990), dialyzed against PBS and the concentration of the toxin was determined by a BCA assay and stored at −80 °C until required. Mice were anesthetized and inoculated intranasally with 50 μL containing 100 ng PT. Control mice were inoculated with 50 μL of sterile PBS. Mice were first euthanized by inhalation of carbon dioxide and the trachea and lungs were exposed by dissection. A small hole was cut in the top of the trachea and a 20-G blunt-ended needle was introduced; this was tied in place with surgical thread to prevent the needle from moving upon introduction of fluid. The lungs were flushed twice with 0.7 mL of sterile PBS; this was repeated to yield a total of 1.4 mL of BAL fluid.

While absence of perforin prevented the splenic atrophy in IFNγ-deficient mice, fibrosis did not disappear. Moreover,

double-deficient mice developed extreme splenomegaly, were unable to control the viral load and displayed chronic immune activation. Thus, IFNγ and perforin act in concert to minimize pathology and control the viral load in mice chronically infected with MHV68. Furthermore, while certain aspect of the virus-induced pathology in IFNγ-deficient mice may be alleviated in double-deficient mice, other aspects are exaggerated, and the normal architecture of the spleen is completely destroyed. We believe that these findings add to the understanding of the virus/host interaction during chronic gammaherpes virus infection. “
“Using ELISA, we have quantified the levels of IL-2 and IFN-γ in the oral mucosa, MK2206 ear skin and regional and distant lymph nodes in an experimental murine model of contact sensitivity (CS), induced by the hapten oxazolone (OXA). Compared to normal conditions, the levels of IL-2

peaked early (4–6 h) after hapten exposure Daporinad nmr in the hapten-exposed tissues analysed both during the first hapten exposure (sensitization) and the second (elicitation) phase, thereafter quickly to subside. The oral mucosa displayed maximal 24-fold increase in IL-2 levels after sensitization and 39-fold increase after elicitation. Respective figures for ear skin were ×27 and ×35 and for regional lymph nodes Bumetanide ×8 and ×9, respectively. The distant lymph nodes displayed only minor cytokine increases at any time. IFN-γ-levels did not increase after sensitization with OXA. An increase in IFN-γ was seen after the second exposure, peaking at 8–24 h, thereafter quickly subsiding. The oral mucosa IFN-γ increased ×14 after elicitation, the ear skin ×8 and regional lymph nodes ×37. The weight of the four

regional lymph nodes increased from 10 to 38 mg, and the total number of cells in these lymph nodes was increased ×11, peaking 48 h after the elicitation. We conclude that in CS reactions, tissue levels of IL-2 increased in buccal mucosa, ear skin and in regional lymph nodes after hapten exposure and re-exposure, IFN-γ appeared only after re-exposure to the hapten. The increased weight of the regional lymph nodes was mainly attributed to cell proliferation. The common ectodermal origin and the similarity of the CS reactions on skin and in buccal mucosa indicate that these tissues share common immunological patterns of Th1 cell reactivity, at least in dealing with haptens like OXA. Being the initial part of the digestive tract, the oral mucosa is exposed to a vast array of foreign molecules. The B-cell side of the immune defence produces secretory IgA into the oral cavity like into the rest of the intestinal canal [1]. Concerning the T-cell defence, two opposed theories exist as to its nature.

17–19 However, several studies suggest that nTreg do not universally suppress all T helper cell subsets to the same extent. In newborns, human thymus-derived nTreg strongly suppress Th1 cells but not Th2 cells, and similar properties have been ascribed to nTreg in mice.20,21 Additionally, nTreg isolated from peripheral human blood have been shown to strongly suppress the production and secretion of interferon-γ (IFN-γ), IL-2

and IL-4, but not that of IL-10, in an allogenic model.22 Thus, diurnal changes in the Th1/Th2 balance could also be AZD6738 regulated by the diurnal rhythm of nTreg-suppressive activity. We previously demonstrated that the suppression of CD4+ CD25− T-cell proliferation by nTreg followed a sleep-dependent rhythm.23 However, whether

this suppressive rhythm of nTreg affects the proliferation and cytokine secretion of Th1, Th2 and Th17 cells to the same extent is not yet clear. Furthermore, the signal-transduction mechanisms by which nTreg mediate their suppressive function in responder T cells (Tres) are largely unknown in humans. One possible mechanism of diurnal changes in the Th1/Th2/Th17 balance could be the hormonal priming of T cells and/or nTreg in vivo through this website the diurnal secretion of hormones with known immunomodulatory effects, such as prolactin, growth hormone, cortisol, noradrenalin and melatonin.8,24–31 To address the vital question of whether nTreg or hormones regulate diurnal changes in the Th1/Th2/Th17 balance, and whether Th1, 4-Aminobutyrate aminotransferase Th2 and Th17 cell activity follows a diurnal rhythm, we investigated the activity of the Th1/Th2/Th17 cells and their regulation by nTreg. We were able to demonstrate that nTreg suppressed IFN-γ, IL-2 and tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), but not IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, or IL-17A. The suppression of IL-2 was reduced if nTreg-associated CD25 was inhibited. Highly purified nTreg secreted IL-6, IL-10 and IL-17, but not IL-2, IL-4, IFN-γ or TNF-α. Furthermore, we observed that secretion

of the cytokines IL-2, IFN-γ, TNF-α and IL-10 by naïve CD4+ T cells follows a diurnal rhythm. Multiple regression analysis, as well as subsequent in vitro experiments, suggested that serum levels of cortisol and prolactin contribute to the underlying mechanisms. Taken together, our findings imply that hormones and nTreg contribute to the diurnal secretion of cytokines from T helper cells. Cytokine secretion, and suppression of cytokine secretion by nTreg, was analyzed for Th1 (IFN-γ), Th2 (IL-4, IL-6) and Th17 (IL-17) cytokines, as well as for the cytokines IL-2, IL-10 and TNF-α. Furthermore, the proliferation of cytokine (IL-2, IL-4, IL-10, IL-17A, IFN-γ, TNF-α)-producing CD4+ CD25− Tres was investigated. For these analyses, T cells were isolated from blood samples taken from healthy male donors at 08:30 hr.

Indeed, when PBMCs derived from IFN-β-treated patients were depleted of monocytes, the strong induction of IL-6 observed in total PBMCs was completely lost. In addition, a strong reduction of BAFF expression was observed in in vivo IFN-β-conditioned PBMCs after the depletion of monocytes. In a similar fashion, in the absence of monocytes, there was no induction of TLR7-driven IgM and IgG production, indicating that IFN-β treatment could exert its therapeutic effects ABT-263 in vivo by fine-tuning monocyte functions, in the context of TLR7 stimulation, that act through bystander mechanisms on the differentiation of

B lymphocytes. Taking into account that TLR7 is crucial for type I IFN release from pDC [41] and is, at the same time, an IFN-inducible gene [22], we can envisage the existence of a tight relation between IFN-β response and TLR7 responsiveness of MS monocytes, whose full comprehension deserves further investigation. In line with this view, recent data obtained by Molnarfi and collaborators showed that monocytes from RRMS patients exhibited a reduced ability to produce HGF, a neuroprotective and neuroinflammation-suppressive mediator, when compared with HD [42]. Treatment with IFN-β significantly enhanced

HGF mTOR inhibitor synthesis and secretion by blood monocytes, contributing to the clinical benefit of IFN-β in RRMS via the combined HGF-mediated neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory mechanisms. In this context, it is also important to remind that monocytes are abundant in inflammatory MS brain lesions and displayed also altered functions and an activated innate immune signature Idoxuridine in MS patients with clinically more severe course [43]. In particular,

the type I IFN pathway is dysregulated in these monocytes, which may contribute to more active disease. In addition to that, conditional genetic knockout of IFNAR1 in monocytes, but not in T cells, B cells, or central nervous system cells, leads to enhanced disease severity in the animal model of MS [44]. All these evidences indicate that perturbations of the type I IFN signaling pathway and response in monocytes could represent crucial events in MS immunopathology and, at the same time, a key target of IFN-β therapy. On the other hand, we cannot exclude that the replenished TLR7 responsiveness in PBMCs and monocytes of IFN-β-treated MS patients could be related to the rescue or prevention of TLR7 tolerance, that is generally induced by specific ligands of this receptor and leads to a reduced cytokine and Ig production [45]. Indeed, Poovassery and Bishop [45] recently demonstrated that IFN-β controls TLR7 tolerance and activation through the PI3K/Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin signaling pathway but also enhancing TLR7 expression in human B cells.